|
 
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| EDITORIAL |
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| Year : 2014 | Volume
: 1
| Issue : 1 | Page : 5-7 |
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Pigmentary disorders: An insight
Sunil Dogra, Rishu Sarangal
Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| Date of Web Publication | 26-Jun-2014 |
Correspondence Address:
Sunil Dogra
Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 160 012
India
 Source of Support: None, Conflict of Interest: None  | Check |
DOI: 10.4103/2349-5847.135429
How to cite this article:
Dogra S, Sarangal R. Pigmentary disorders: An insight. Pigment Int 2014;1:5-7 |
The earth counts variegated collection of people with different skin colors. The skin color is one of the most obvious ways in which human races are defined and there are very few things, which are affronted discriminated against than the "discolored skin." In recent years, there have been tremendous strides in research related to biology of melanocytes, clinical aspects and treatment of pigmentary disorders. There are more than 4000 different known diseases of the skin. Many of these disorders are associated with a change in skin color.
The epidemiology of pigmentary disorders varies in different geographical areas of world, skin races and age groups. A study on dermatoses in childhood and adolescence from Northern India, describes 6.9% patients were suffering from pigmentary disorders [1] whereas studies from South India have reported frequency of hypopigmentary [2] and hyperpigmentary [3] disorders among children attending the general outpatient departments as 3.28 and 1.54 per 1000 children, respectively. In a study among the adult population, 10.8% of patients attending dermatology clinic at a hospital in Western India were reported to have pigmentary disorders. [4]
Overall, melasma is the most common pigmentary disorder in India and South-East Asia [5] with prevalence ranging from 0.25% to 4%, respectively. [5],[6],[7] This is followed by the vitiligo with its prevalence ranging between 0.25% and 2.5%. [6],[8] The common hyperpigmentary disorders seen in adults are melasma, Riehl's melanosis, idiopathic guttate and confluent hypermelanosis, postinflammatory melanosis, lichen amyloidosis, nevus of Ota, lichen planus. The common hypopigmentary disorders in adulthood are vitiligo, pityriasis versicolor, hypopigmented leprosy, nevus achromicus and albinism. [6] The most common hypopigmentary disorders described in childhood are pityriasis alba, vitiligo, leprosy, nevus de-pigmentosus and pityriasis versicolor, [2] whereas common hyperpigmentary disorders in this age group are cafe-au-lait macules, postinflammatory hyperpigmentation, congenital melanocytic nevi, pigmentary mosaicism, lichen planus and Mongolian spots. [3]
The constitutive pigmentation (phenotype) of skin, hair and eyes is due to genetic factors and depend primarily on the functions of melanocytes and the cellular interactions between epidermal-melanin unit. In human skin, melanocytes are localized at the dermo-epidermal junction in a characteristic regularly dispersed pattern. Each melanocyte at the basal layer of the epidermis is functionally connected to underlying fibroblasts in the dermis and to keratinocytes in the overlying epidermis. These three types of cells are highly interactive and communicate with each other via secreted factors and their receptors and via cell/cell contacts to regulate the function and phenotype of the skin. The genotypes of melanocytes determine the quantity and type of melanosomes that are transferred to surrounding keratinocytes. The keratinocytes also have some control over melanosomal transfer and this is by protease activated receptors-2, located on the surface of keratinocytes. These receptors alter the capacity of keratinocytes to ingest melanosomes. Besides the genetic make-up, the racial and ethnic differences in skin color depend upon other intrinsic and extrinsic factors (facultative pigmentation). These are endocrine factors such as estrogen, α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, paracrine and autocrine factors, the ultraviolet radiation (UV-R) exposure, vitamin D, all these factors enhance melanogenesis. [9] Eighty percent of the world's population consists of individuals with pigmented skin. Expression of this receptor is constitutively higher in darker skin and is also up regulated by UV-R. [9]
All disorders of pigmentation revolve around the pathologies either in melanocytes or in the process of melanisation. These pathologies can be inherited or acquired manifesting locally or diffuse. Disorders of pigmentation can result from abnormal migration of melanocytes from the neural crest to the skin during embryogenesis. Apart from it, impairment of melanosome transfer to the surrounding keratinocytes, an alteration in melanin synthesis and a defective degradation or removal of melanin may lead to abnormal skin pigmentation. Immunologic or toxic mediated destructions of melanocytes are also a cause for pigmentation disorders.
Ultraviolet-induced skin darkening involves an increase in the number of melanocytes as well as stimulation of melanin synthesis and melanocyte dendricity. [10],[11],[12] UV-R also causes peroxidation of lipids in cellular membranes, leading to generation of reactive oxygen species, which may stimulate melanocytes to produce excess melanin. [10],[11],[12] Beside above mentioned factors, various common drugs can stimulate skin hyperpigmentation such as certain antibiotics (sulfonamides and tetracyclines), diuretics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, pain relievers, some psychoactive medications, oral contraceptive pills, chloroquine, clofazimine and so on. [10] All these drugs stimulate melanogenesis and increase melanin content in large size melanocytes. Heavy metals can also elicit hyperpigmentation, which can arise after the extensive use of drugs containing arsenic, bismuth, gold, or silver. The metals are believed to act by binding and thereby inactivating sulfhydryl compounds in the skin that normally inhibit tyrosinase activity. Removal of this inhibition stimulates melanogenesis. [10]
On the other hand, etiopathogenesis of vitiligo is very complex and is not known fully, it include the susceptible genes, which influence the autoimmune response against melanocytes and melanogenesis, genetically abnormal melanocytes and environmental or physiological factors that activates genetic program for melanocyte destruction. [13],[14],[15] Both cellular and humoral immune responses have been implicated in the etiology of vitiligo. [14],[15] The inflammatory cells, which are commonly observed in the vicinity of vitiliginous lesions are CD4, CD8 T-cells and CD11-dendritic cells. Serum auto-antibodies against many melanocyte cytoplasmic antigens have been identified in vitiligo patients, which can cause antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity as well as complement-dependent cytotoxicity of cultured melanocytes. [15],[16]
In addition to genetically aberrant immune system, melanocytes in vitiligo are itself defective. Studies have demonstrated that the melanocytes in the skin of vitiligo patients can exhibit morphologic abnormalities, including enlargement, fragmentation, extracellular granular material, and dilated rough endoplasmic reticulum. [17]
Beside innate defect in the immune system and melanocytes itself, various extrinsic precipitating factors co-related with vitiligo are severe sunburn, pregnancy, physical and emotional stress/trauma, wounds or areas of microtrauma and so on. [13] Contact/occupational leukoderma is the most obvious example which correlates external precipitating factors (phenolic and catecholic compounds) with the onset of melanocyte destruction. [18]
Multiple inflammatory diseases, especially of the papulosquamous and vesiculobullous type, can cause postinflammatory hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation. The actual pathogeneses of post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation remain unknown. Skin insult due to any intrinsic or extrinsic factors, ultimately lead to inflammation in skin layers, which may enhance melanogenesis or may destroy the melanocytes partially or completely leading hyperpigmentation or hypo-de-pigmented dermatoses. The postinflammatory hyperpigmentation at the cellular level is characterized by normal number of melanocytes that have increased melanin production. The arachidonate-derived inflammatory chemical mediators, especially leukotrienes such as LTC4 and LTD4, and thromboxanes such as TXB2 stimulate melanocytes. [10] Another important mediators in inflammation are nitric oxide (NO) and NO synthetase enzyme (NOS), which are found in melanocytes, keratinocytes and Langerhans cells. Following UV-R exposure, the controlled production of NO and NOS stimulates melanogenesis by activation transcription of tyrosinase enzyme but when released in excess amounts from langerhans cells it is melano-cytotoxic leading to melanocyte destruction causing hypo/de-pigmented skin lesions. [10],[19],[20] The other oxidative stress, which is related to de-pigmentation is a disruption of the biopterin metabolic pathway and network that induces reactive oxygen species (H 2 O 2 ). Generation of reactive oxygen species, initially causes lipid peroxidation and then induce apoptosis of melanocytes. [13],[21]
Treatment of pigmentation disorders are based on diagnosis, which sometimes allow a specific intervention, although cosmetically acceptable results are in general difficult to obtain. The management of hyperpigmentary disorders involves multi-factorial treatment approach, which includes photoprotection, topical and systemic lightening agents various procedures for re-calcitrant cases such as chemical peels, resurfacing and laser techniques. [22],[23]
In the management of stable vitiligo, gold standard is phototherapy for which various light sources are available like UVA, BB-UVB, NB-UVB, excimer laser. [24] Topical therapies like corticosteroids, topical calcineurin inhibitors, vitamin D analogues (calcipotriol, tacalcitrol) are useful as monotherapy or adjunctive to systemic treatment. [25] For progressive vitiligo, the aberrant immune responses are counteracted by systemic immunosuppressive like corticosteriods, steriod sparing immunosuppressants immunomodulating drugs like levamisole and oral antioxidants. Surgical modalities are reserved for stable, medical treatment resistant, and residual de-pigmented lesions. [26]
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